8. Country of many Governments

8.1 State Government

Before their independence, colonies were governed separately by the British Crown. In the early years of the republic, prior to the adoption of the Constitution, each state was virtually an autonomous unit. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention sought a stronger, more viable federal union, but they were also intent on safeguarding the rights of the states.
In general, matters that lie entirely within state borders are the exclusive concern of tate governments. These include internal communications, regulations relating to property, industry, business, and public utilities, the state criminal code, and working conditions within the state. With this context , the federal government requieres taht state governments must be democratic in form and that they adopt no laws that contradict or violate the federal Constitution or the laws and treaties of the US.
Like the national government, state governments have three branches, these are roughlyequivalent in function and scope to their national counterparts. The chief executive of a state is a governor, elected by popular vote, typically for four years. All states have a bicameral legislature, with a upper house ussualy called the Senate and the lower house called the House of Represenatatives.
The constitutions of the states differ in some details, but generally follow a pattern similar to that of the Constitution. Each state constitution provides that the final authorirty belongs to the people, and sets certain standards and principles as the foundation of government.

8.2 Counrty Government

The county is a subdivision of the state, usually – but not always – containing two or more townships and several villages. New York city is so large that it is divided inot five separate boroughs, each a county in its own right – the Bronx, Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten island.
In most US counties, one town or city is designated at the country seat, and this is where the government offices are located and where the board of commissioners or supervisors meets. In small counties, boars are chosen by the county as a whole, in the larger ones, supervisors represent separate districts or townships. The board levies taxes, borrows and appropriates money, fixes the salaries of county employees, supervises elections, builds and maintains highways and bridges, and administraters national, state, and county welfare programs.

8.3 Town and Village Government

Thousands of municipal jurididictions are too small to qualify as city governments. These are chartered as towns and villages and deal with such strictly local needs as paving and lightning the streets, ensuring water supply, providing police and fire protection, establishing local health regulations, arranging for garbage, sewage, and other waste disposal, collecting local taxes to support governmental operationsand administering the local school system.
The government is entrused to an elected board or council. The board may have a chairperson or a president who functions as chief executive officer, or there may be an elected mayor. Governmental employees may include a clerk, treasurer, police and fire officers, and health and welfare officers.

9. Role of Citizens

9.1 Extending the Franchise

Throughout the 19th century, politics in the US became, slowly but inexorably, more inclusive. The old ways broke down, groups previously excluded became involved in the political process, and the right to vote was given to more and more people.
First came the elimination of religious and property owning restrictions, so that by the middle of the century white male adults were able to vote.
Then after a Civil War was fought over the question of slavery, three amendments to the US Constitution significantly altered the scope and nature of American democracy. The thirdteen amendment ratified in 1865, abolished slavery. The fourteen, declared that all people born or naturalized in the US are the citizens of the country and of the state in which they reside, and their fundamental human rights are to be enforced by the federal government. The fifteen amendment prohibitid the federal or state governments from discriminating against potential voters because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
The word „sex“ was left off this list, not through oversight, therefor, women continued to be barred from the polls. The extension of suffrage to include former slaves gave new life to the long – simmering campaign for women´s right to vote. This battle was finally vote in the year 1920, when the 19th amendments said that voting could not be denied „on account of sex“.
Ironically, at this point the situation was reserved. Women could now vote, but many black Americans could not. Beginning in the 1890s, southern whites had systematically removed blacks from electoral politics through voting regulations such as the „grandfather clause“ , which requiered literacy tests for all citizens whose ancestors had not been voters before 1868, the imposition of poll taxes, and, too often, physical intimidation. This disfranchisement continued well into the 20th century. The civil rights movement, which began in the 1950s, resulted in the Voting Rights Act of 1965, a federal law that outlawed unfair electoral procedures and required the Department of Justice to supervise southern elections. The twentyfourth amendment, abolished the impostition of a poll tax as a qualification for voting, eliminating one of the few remaining ways that states could try to reduce voting by Afro-americans and poor people.
One final change was done in the 1960s and 1970s – in the Vietnam War, people old enough to bear a gun were also old enough to vote, so the 26th amendment enabled to change the voting age from 21 to 18. Now nearly all adult citizens of the US, native born or naturalized, over the age 18 are eligible voters.

9.1 Political Parties

Many of America´s Founding Fathers hated the thought of political parties, quarelling „factions“ they were sure would be more interested in contending with each other than in working for the common good. They wanted individual citizens to vote for individul candidates, without the interference of organized groups.
By the 1790s, different views of the new country´s proper course had already developed, and those who held these opposing views tried to win support for their cause by banding together. The followers of Hamilton called themselves Federalists, favoring a strong central government, supporting interests of comerce andindustry. Jefferson´s followers called themselves Democratic – republicans, preferring a decentralized agrarian republic, with limited powers of the federal government. Later, the Federalist were replaced with the whigs, leaded with Andrew Jackson. The Democratic – Republicans changed their name into Democrats, and the two party system was born.
In the 1850s, the issue of slavery took central stage, with a discussion wheter the slavery should or should not be abolished. The Whigs were replaced in 1854 by the Republican Party, whose primary policy was to abolish slavery. Six years later this party won a presidential election with Abraham Lincoln. By then party loyalty was passed from fathers to sons, and party activities – including the campaign events, compete with uniformed marching groups and torchlight parades.
By the 1920s municipal reforms, civil service reform, corrupt practise acts, presidential primaries to replace the power of politicians at national conventions had all helped to clean up politics.
In America the same political labels – Democratic and Republican – cover virtually all public officeholders, and therefor most voters are everywhere mobilized in the name of these two parties.

9.2 Responsibilities of Citizenship

Citizens of the US have a many rights that give them freedoms all peoples hold dear. However, the theory of democratic government holds that along with these rights come responsibilities – to obey the laws, to pay legally imposed taxes, to serve on juries when called to do so, to be informed about issues and candidtaes, and to exercise the right to vote. Another major responsibility is public service. Millions of Americans have joined the armed forces, Peace Corps, or other social service at home or abroad.