American democracy and Constitution

1. The Constitution as An Enduring Document

1.1 The American Constitution (Introduction)

The constitution of United states is the supreme law of the land and the central instrument of American government. It is the oldest written Constitution in force (the oldest unwritten constitution is the one of UK) in the whole world. For more than 2 centuries it has served as a model for a number of other constitutions around the world, because it has guided the evolution of governmental institutions and has provided the basis for political stability, individual freedom, economic growth, and social progress. The power of US´constitution is in it´s simplicity and flexibility. At first, it was meant as a tool for governing for 4 million people in 13 colonies, later on 27 amendmends were added and nowadays the constitution serves for more than 260 million people from one ocen to another, in 50 states.
It´s development was not very easy. The first document which could be called „ a constitution“ was the Mayflower Contract – a document designed by the early settlers of the area of US. It was the year 1776 when the 13 British colonies decided to tear up from the mothercountry with a formal support of Decaration of Independence. This was a signal for the UK to start a war to remain the colonies and for the US to become an integral independent nation. Two years later the articles of Confederation were signed, but they were not yet ratified because of the war, the ratification process was fullfilled in the year 1781 by the 13th state Maryland. These pre-constitution was just a loose union among the states. It was not a guarantee for stability or strength, that is the reason why after 13 years, a new constitution was born on the soil of chaos and insecurity.

1.2 Drafting the Constitution

In February 1787 the continental Congress, the legislative body of the republic send delegates to Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation.Nobody had expected that the 55 delegates would draft a completely new document – nearly perfect in fact perfect in fact. They were only authorized to amend the Articles and to construct a new charter for a more centalized government. The 55 delegates are called the Founding Fathers, included most of the leading characters of the new nation. They were from all kinds of social sciences such as politics, social studies and other backgrouds of social life. However, once allowed to do one thing, they did a big deal not only in US but also in world´s history. The new constitution was was completed on September 17, 1787, and was officially adopted on March 4, 1789. The new era could be started.

1.3 Uniting a Diverse People

America had been settled in large part by Europeans who had left their motherlands to escape from political or religios discriminations, and to reach economic welfare. This was not enabled on the Old Continent, that is why many people left to settle a New Continent, enabling freedom, life and property. The people were so different coming from the countries of the UK, Norwegians, Prussians, Russians, Dutch, Poles and others. The diversity of the new nation was also a formidable obstacle to unity. Their religios beliefs were varied, economically and socially there were great gaps between rich and poor ones, but we can say that the backbone was the middle class of the country.
The diversity offers a wide range of oppinions, increased number of immigration in the past 2 centuries build up a face of USA to what it is today. It was the continuing job of the Constitution and the government it had created to draw this disparate interrests together, to crate a common ground and, at the same time, to protect the fundamental rights of all people.
The Constitution and the federal government stand at the peak of a governmental pyramid that includes local and state jurisdiction. In the Us system each level of government has a large degree of autonomy with certain powers reserved particulary to itself.

2. Constitution as Supreme Law

2.1 Supreme law of the land

The US Constitution calls itself the „supreme law of the land“. Courts have interpreted this clause to mean taht when state constitutions or laws passed by state legislatures or by national Congress are found to conflict with the federal Constituion, these laws have no force. Decisions handed down by the supreme Court over the course of two centuries have confirmed and strenghtened this doctrine of constitutional supremacy.
Final authority is vested in the American people, who can change the fundamental law, if they wish, , by amending the Constitution or – in theory, at least – drafting a new one. The people do not exercise their authority directly, however. They delegate the day to day business of government to public officials, both elected and appointed.
The power of public officials is limited under the Constitution. Their public actions must conform to the Constitution and to the laws made in accordance with the constitution. Elected officials must stand for reelection at periodic intervals, when their records are subject to intensive public scrutiny. Appointed officials serve at the pleasure of the person or authority who appointed them and may be removed at any time. The exception to this practise is the lifetime appointment by the president of justices of the Supremem Court and other federal judges, so that they may be free of political obligations or influence.
Most commonly, the American people express their will through the ballot box. The Constitution, however, does make provision for the removal of a public official from office, in cases of extreme misconduct or malfeasance, by the process of impeachment.It is a charge of misconduct brought against a government official by a legislative body, it does not, as is commonly thought, refer to conviction of such charges. As set forth in the Constitution, the House of Representatives must bring charges of misconduct by voting a bill of impeachment. The accused official is then tried in the Senate, with the chief justice of the Supreme Court presiding at the trial.
Impeachment is considered a drastic measure, one that has been used on only rare occasions in the United states. Since 1797 the House of Representatives has voted articles of impeachment against 16 federal officilas – two presidents, one cabinet member, one senator, one justice of the Supreme Court, and 11 federal judges. Of those impeached, the Senate has convicted seven, all of them judges.
In the year 1868, President Andrew Johnson was impeached over issues relating to the proper treatment of the defeated Confederate states following the American Civil War. The Senate, however, fell one vote short of the two – thirds majority necessery to for conviction, and Johnson comleted his full term in office. In 1974, as a result of the Watergate affair, President Richard Nixon resigned from office after the Judiciary Comitee of the House recommended impeachment, but before the full house of Representatives could vote on a bill of impeachment.
As recently as 1998, President Bill Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice. After a trial, the Senate acquited the president on both charges, voting not for guilty perjury by a margin of 55 – 45 obstruction of justice. To remove the president from office would have required a guilty verdict by a majority of 67 votes on eitheir charge.

2.2 The Principles of Government

Although the Constitution has changed in many aspects since it was first adopted, its basic principles remain the same now as in 1789.

• The three main branches of government – executive, legislative, judicial – are separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are delicately balanced by the powers of the another two. Each branch serves as a check on potential excesses of the others (system of checks and balances).

• The Constitution, together with laws passed according to its provisions and treaties entered into by the the president and approved by the Senate, stands above all other laws, executive acts, and regulations.

• All persons are equal before the law and are equally entitled to its protection. All states are equal, and none can receive special treatment from the federal government. Within the limits of the Constitution, each state must recognize and respect the laws of the others. State governments, like the federal government, must be democratic in form, with final authority resting with the people.

• The people have the right to change their form of national government by legal means defined in the Constitution.
2.3 The Bill of Rights

The Constitution has been amended 27 times since 1789, and it is likely to be further revised in the future. The most sweeping changes occured within two years of its adoption. In that period, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, were added. Congress approved these amendments as a bllock in september 1789, and 11 states had ratified them by the end of 1791.
Much of the initial resistance to the Constitution came not from those opposed to strenghtening the federal union but from statesmen who felt that the rights of individuals must be specifically spelled out.These amendmends remain intact today, as they were written two centuries ago. The first guarantees freedom of worship, speech and press, the right of peacefull assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrongs. The second guarantees the right of citizens to bear arms. The third provides that troops may not be quarted in private homes without the owner´s consent. The forth guards aginst unreasonable searches, arrests, and seizers of property.
The next four amendments deal with the system of justice. The fifth forbids trial for a major crime except after indictment by a grand jury. It prohibids repeted trials for the same offense, forbids punishment without due process of law, andd provides that an accused person may not be compelled to testify against himself. The sixth guarantees a speedy public trial for criminal offences. It requires trial by an unbiased jury, guarantees the right to legal counsel for the accused, and provides that witnesses shall be compelled to attend the trial and testify in the presence of the accused. The seventh assures trial by jury in civil cases involving valued at more than 20 USD. The eight forbids excessive bail or fines, and cruel or unusual punishment.
The last two of them contain very broad statements of constitutional authority. The ninth declares that the listing of individual rights is not meant to be comprehensive, that the people have other rights not specifically mentioned in the constitution. The tenth provides that powers not delegated by the constitution to the federal government nor prohibited by it to the the states are reserved to the states or the people.

3. The Federalist Papers

3.1 Introduction

For Thomas Jefferson, one of America´s Founding Fathers and later the new nation´s third president, the Federalist Papers were the best comentary on the principles of government.... ever written. For the 19th century British philosopher, John Stuart Mill, The Federalist – as a collection of 85 short essays was ussually titled – was „ the most instructive treatise we possess on federal government“.
Contemporary historians, jurist, and poitical scientists have generally agreed that The Federalist is the most important work of political philosophy and pragmatic government ever written in the US.It has been compared to many well-known philosophical works in the world, and it has also inspired other constitutions in the world.
The delegates who signed the draft US Constitution in Philadelphia on september 17, 1787, needed support of 9 from 13 states to ratify the Constitution. The biggest problems were with the two most powerfull states in US – New York and Virginia.
The Federalist Papers were in fact a work of two American scholars Alexander Hamilton, aged 32, and James Madison, aged 36, and what is very interresting is the fact that this young men were from the states New York and Virginia, isn´t it ironic? And of course John jay had contributed with 5 essays too.
It was Hamilton´s idea to ask the other ones to join him in this crucial American project. Their purpose was to persuade the New York convention to ratify the Constitution. They wrote this essays into the New York newsletters under a common pseudonym Publius. As I already had noticed, the Federalist Papers were Hamilton´s idea – it was him who initiated the whole project, outlined the topics, and wrote the majority of the essays – 51. In contrast it were the Letters of Madisson to be the most memorable ones.
The Federalist Papers were written between October 1787 and May 1788, and they had an great influence on the ratification of the Constitution in the State New York.

3.2 Checks and Balances

The federalist Papers also provide the first specific mentio found in political literature of the idea of checks and balances as a way of restricting governmental power and preventing its abuse. The words are used mainly in reference to the bicameral legislature, which Hamilton and Madison regarded as the most powerful branch of government.That means that the House of Representatives would be checked and balanced by the most conservative Senate chosen by state legislatures.
In the essay number 78, Hamilton defended the Supreme Court´s right to rule upon the constitutionality of laws passed by national or state legislatures.
3.3 The Separation of Powers
The idea of separating powers among the various branches of government to avoid the tyranny of concentrated power falls under the larger category of checks and balances. But the Federalist Papers see another virtue in the separation of powers, namely, an increase in governmental efficiency and effectiveness.
Qualities that might be crucial to one function could be inapropriate for another. Hamilton termed on the one hand „energy in the executive“ and on the other hand „deliberation and wisdom for a legislator“, as far for the qualities for a judge should be „integrity andmoderation“. The difference of needs also explains why executive authority should be placed in the hands of one person, the president, since a plurality of executives could lead to a paralysis and frustrate the most important measures of government, in the most critical emergencies of the state.

4. Powers of the Presidency

4.1 The Presidency

The office of the president of the united States is one of the most powerful in the world. The president, the Constitution says, must „ take care that the laws be faithfully executed “. To carry out this responsibility, he presides over the executive branch of the federal government – a vast organization numbering about 4 million people, including 1 million active – duty military personnel. In addition, the president has important legislative and judicial powers.
He is elected, by the people, but not directly, but through the electoral college, to a four year term, limited to 2 terms. The president is quite well paid 400 000 USD per year, he is inaugurated on 20 of January, following the November generall elections.

4.2 Executive, legislative and judicial powers

• Executive power
Within the executive branch itself, the president has broad powers to manage national affairs and the workings of the workings of the federal government. As comander – in – chief of the armed forces of the US, the president may also call into federal service the state units of the National Guard. In extraordinary occasions, the Congress may grant the president to manage the national economy and protect the securiry of the US. He also nominates the heads of all executive departmends and agencies, together with other federal officials. The selection is based on ability and experience.
• Legislative power
The president, as the chief formulator of public policy, has a major legislative role. He can veto any bill passed by Congress and, unless two – thirds of the members of each house vote to override the veto, the bill doesn ´t become a law. The president also has the power to call a special session of Congress, if necessery.
• Judicial powers
Among the president ´s constitutional powers is that of appointing important public officials – federal judges, members of the Supreme Court, pardoning.

4.3 Powers in Foreign Affairs

The president is responsible for the relations of the US with foreign nations. He appoints ambassadors, ministers, receives foreign ambassadors and other public officials. He manages all official contacts with foreign governments. The president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the US. He is also empowered to decide wheter to recognize or not a new nation, new government, and negotiate.
5. The American Cabinet

the most important departments
• Department of Defence
Headquarted in Pentagon, one of the world´s largest office buildings, it is responsible for all matters relating to the nation´s military security. It provides the military forces of the US. It is divided into these military departments – the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and National War College.
• Department of Energy
This department was created in the 70s of the 20th century as a result ofgrowing number of energy problems. Tis department is responsible for the research, development, demonstration of energy technology, conservation, use of nuclear energy, regulation of production and use, pricing and allocation of oil, central energy data collection and analysis program. The department of Energy tries to minimize the harmful effects of enrgy production.
• Department of Justice
The Department is headed by the attorney general of the United States, the chief law enforcement of the federal government. Its further departments are Federal bureau of Investigation, Naturalisation Service, Drug Enforcement Administration, and it also give aid to local police forces. It is also linked to the INTERPOL.
• Department of State
The eepartment of State advises the president, who was overall responsibility for formulating and executing the foreign policy of the US. The department maintains more than 250 diplomatic and consular posts around the world.
• Department of Treasury
The Department of Treasury is responsible for serving the fiscal and monetary needs of the nation. It performs four basic functions – formulating financial, tax and fiscal policies, serving as a financial agent for the US government, providing special law enforcement services, and manufacturing coins and currency. It regulates the sale of alcohol and tobacco, supervises the printing of stamps, oprates the Secret Service, which protects the presidents and vice president, regulates and taxes the flow of goods into the country.

6. The Reach of the Congress

6.1 Qualification of Members of Congress

The Constitution requieres that US senators must be at least 30 years old, citizens for at least 9 years, and residents of the state from which they are elected. Members of the House of Representatives must be at least 25, citizens for 7 years, and residents of the state from which they are elected. Each state is entitled to two senators. The total number of the House of Representatives has been determined by congress. That number is divided among the states according to their populations (1 – 600 000). State legislatures divide the states into districts, which must be substantially equal in population. Every two years, the voters choose a representative for Congress.
Senators are chosen in statewide elections held in every even – numbered year. Their term is 6 years, and every 2 years one – third of them stands for election.

6.2 Powers of the House and Senate

The Congress is empowered to levy taxes and collect them, borrow money for the public tresury, make rules and regulations governing commerce among the states and with foreign countries, to make uniform rules for naturalisation of immigrants, to coin money, state its value, and provide for the punishment of counterfeithers, to set the standards for weights and measures, to establish bankruptcy laws for country as a whole, to establish post offices and roads, to issue patents and copyrights, to set up a system of federal courts, to punish piracy, to declare war, to raise and support armies, to provide for a navy, to call out militia to enforce federal laws, supress lawlessness or repeal invasions, to make all laws for the seat of government, to make all laws necessery to enforce the Constitution.

6.3 The Comitee System

The Comitee System began in 1789 when House members found themseves bogged down in endless discussions of proposed new laws.
For each bill – the draft – of a law that comes before Congress – the appropriate comitee is responsible for conducting a throughout investigation of the proposal. The comitee usually conducts hearings to obtain testimony from experts, who can include members of Congress who are not on the comitee, executive branch officials, representatives of private – sector organisations, and individual citizens.
After all the facts are gathered, the comitee decides wheter to report a new bill favorably or with a reccomendation that it be passed with amendmends. Sometiemes the bill will be set aside, or tabled, which effectively ends its consideration. When bills are reported out of comitee and passed by the full House or Senate, however, another comitee goes into actionironimg out any diferences between the House and Senate versions of the same bill. This „conference comitee“ consisting of members of both houses, completes a bill to all membeers satisfaction, then sends it to hte Senate and House floors for final discussion and a vote. If passes, the bill goes to president for his signature.

7. The Judicial Branch

7.1 The Federal Court System

A system of state courts existed before the Constitution was drafted. Article III of the Constitution states the basis for federal court system: „ The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.“ With this guide, the first Congress divided the nation into districts and created federal courts for each district. Congress today retains the power to create and abolish federal courts, as well as to determine the number of judges in the federal judiciary system. Congress can not abolish the Supreme Court.
The power of federal courts extends both to civil actions for damages and other redress, and to criminal cases arising under federal law. Article III has resulted in a complex set of relationships between state nd federal courts. Ordinarily, federal courts do not hear cases arising under the law of individual states. Both court systems have exclusive jurisdiction in some areas and concurrent jurisdiction in others.
The Constitution safeguards judicial independence by providing that federal judges shall hold office „during good behavior“ – until they die. The US judges are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Congress determines the pay scale of judges.

7.2 The Supreme Court

The Supreme court is the highest of the US, and the only one specifically created by the Costitution. A decision of the Supreme Court can not be appealed to any other court. Congress has the power to fix the number of judges sitting on the Court and, within limits, decide what kind of cases it may hear, but it cannot change the powers given to the Supreme Court by the Constitution itself.
The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases: those involving foreign dignitarities and those in which a state is a party. All other cases reach the Court on appeal from lower courts. Most of the cases involve the interpretation of the law or the intent of Congress in passing a piece of legislation. A significant work of the Supreme Court consists of determining wheter legislation or executive acts conform to the Constitution. Decision of the Court need not to be unanimous, a simple majority prevails, provided at least six justices – the legal quorum – participate in the decision. In split decisions, the Court usually issues a majority and minority – oppinion both of which may form the basis for future decisions by the Court.

7.3 Court of Appeals and District Courts

The second highest level of the federal judiciary is made up of the courts of appeals, created in 1891 to facilitate the disposition of cases and ease the burden on the Supreme Court. Congress has established 12 regional circuits courts of appeals and the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. The number of judges sitting on each of these courts varies considerably (6-28), but most circuits have between 10 and 15 judges.
The courts of appeals rewiev decisions of the district courts within their areas. They are also empowered to review orders of the independent regulatory agencies in cases where the internal review mechanism of the agencies have been exhausted and there still exists substantial disagreement over legal points. In addition, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit has nationwide jurisdiction to hear appeals in specialized cases, such as those involving patent laws and cases decided by the courts of special jurisdiction, the Court of International Trade and the Court of Federal Claims.
Below the courts of appeals are district courts. The 50 states and US teritories are divided into 94 districts so that litigants may have a trial within aeasy reach. Each district court has at least two judges, many have several judges, and the most populous districts have more than two dozen. Depending on case load, a judge from one district may temporarily sit in another district. Congress fixes the boundaries of the districts according to population, size and volume of work. Some of the smaller states constitute a district by themselves, while the larger states, such as New York , california, and Texas, have four districts each.
Except the District of colombia, judges must be residents of the district in which they permanently serve. District courts hold their sessions at periodic intervals in different cities of the cities.
Most cases and controversies heard by these courts involve federal offense such as misuse of the mails, theft of federal property, and violations of pure-food, banking, and counterfeiting laws. These are the only federal courts where „grand“ juries indict those accused of crimes and „petit“ juries decide the cases. Eacg judicial district also includes a US bankruptcy court, because congress has determined that bankruptcy matters should be adressed in federal rather than state courts. Through the bankruptcy process, individuals or businesses that can no longer pay their creditors either may seek a court - supervised liquidation of their assets or may recognize their financial affairs and work out a plan to pay off their debts.
8. Country of many Governments

8.1 State Government

Before their independence, colonies were governed separately by the British Crown. In the early years of the republic, prior to the adoption of the Constitution, each state was virtually an autonomous unit. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention sought a stronger, more viable federal union, but they were also intent on safeguarding the rights of the states.
In general, matters that lie entirely within state borders are the exclusive concern of tate governments. These include internal communications, regulations relating to property, industry, business, and public utilities, the state criminal code, and working conditions within the state. With this context , the federal government requieres taht state governments must be democratic in form and that they adopt no laws that contradict or violate the federal Constitution or the laws and treaties of the US.
Like the national government, state governments have three branches, these are roughlyequivalent in function and scope to their national counterparts. The chief executive of a state is a governor, elected by popular vote, typically for four years. All states have a bicameral legislature, with a upper house ussualy called the Senate and the lower house called the House of Represenatatives.
The constitutions of the states differ in some details, but generally follow a pattern similar to that of the Constitution. Each state constitution provides that the final authorirty belongs to the people, and sets certain standards and principles as the foundation of government.

8.2 Counrty Government

The county is a subdivision of the state, usually – but not always – containing two or more townships and several villages. New York city is so large that it is divided inot five separate boroughs, each a county in its own right – the Bronx, Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten island.
In most US counties, one town or city is designated at the country seat, and this is where the government offices are located and where the board of commissioners or supervisors meets. In small counties, boars are chosen by the county as a whole, in the larger ones, supervisors represent separate districts or townships. The board levies taxes, borrows and appropriates money, fixes the salaries of county employees, supervises elections, builds and maintains highways and bridges, and administraters national, state, and county welfare programs.

8.3 Town and Village Government

Thousands of municipal jurididictions are too small to qualify as city governments. These are chartered as towns and villages and deal with such strictly local needs as paving and lightning the streets, ensuring water supply, providing police and fire protection, establishing local health regulations, arranging for garbage, sewage, and other waste disposal, collecting local taxes to support governmental operationsand administering the local school system.
The government is entrused to an elected board or council. The board may have a chairperson or a president who functions as chief executive officer, or there may be an elected mayor. Governmental employees may include a clerk, treasurer, police and fire officers, and health and welfare officers.

9. Role of Citizens

9.1 Extending the Franchise

Throughout the 19th century, politics in the US became, slowly but inexorably, more inclusive. The old ways broke down, groups previously excluded became involved in the political process, and the right to vote was given to more and more people.
First came the elimination of religious and property owning restrictions, so that by the middle of the century white male adults were able to vote.
Then after a Civil War was fought over the question of slavery, three amendments to the US Constitution significantly altered the scope and nature of American democracy. The thirdteen amendment ratified in 1865, abolished slavery. The fourteen, declared that all people born or naturalized in the US are the citizens of the country and of the state in which they reside, and their fundamental human rights are to be enforced by the federal government. The fifteen amendment prohibitid the federal or state governments from discriminating against potential voters because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
The word „sex“ was left off this list, not through oversight, therefor, women continued to be barred from the polls. The extension of suffrage to include former slaves gave new life to the long – simmering campaign for women´s right to vote. This battle was finally vote in the year 1920, when the 19th amendments said that voting could not be denied „on account of sex“.
Ironically, at this point the situation was reserved. Women could now vote, but many black Americans could not. Beginning in the 1890s, southern whites had systematically removed blacks from electoral politics through voting regulations such as the „grandfather clause“ , which requiered literacy tests for all citizens whose ancestors had not been voters before 1868, the imposition of poll taxes, and, too often, physical intimidation. This disfranchisement continued well into the 20th century. The civil rights movement, which began in the 1950s, resulted in the Voting Rights Act of 1965, a federal law that outlawed unfair electoral procedures and required the Department of Justice to supervise southern elections. The twentyfourth amendment, abolished the impostition of a poll tax as a qualification for voting, eliminating one of the few remaining ways that states could try to reduce voting by Afro-americans and poor people.
One final change was done in the 1960s and 1970s – in the Vietnam War, people old enough to bear a gun were also old enough to vote, so the 26th amendment enabled to change the voting age from 21 to 18. Now nearly all adult citizens of the US, native born or naturalized, over the age 18 are eligible voters.

9.1 Political Parties

Many of America´s Founding Fathers hated the thought of political parties, quarelling „factions“ they were sure would be more interested in contending with each other than in working for the common good. They wanted individual citizens to vote for individul candidates, without the interference of organized groups.
By the 1790s, different views of the new country´s proper course had already developed, and those who held these opposing views tried to win support for their cause by banding together. The followers of Hamilton called themselves Federalists, favoring a strong central government, supporting interests of comerce andindustry. Jefferson´s followers called themselves Democratic – republicans, preferring a decentralized agrarian republic, with limited powers of the federal government. Later, the Federalist were replaced with the whigs, leaded with Andrew Jackson. The Democratic – Republicans changed their name into Democrats, and the two party system was born.
In the 1850s, the issue of slavery took central stage, with a discussion wheter the slavery should or should not be abolished. The Whigs were replaced in 1854 by the Republican Party, whose primary policy was to abolish slavery. Six years later this party won a presidential election with Abraham Lincoln. By then party loyalty was passed from fathers to sons, and party activities – including the campaign events, compete with uniformed marching groups and torchlight parades.
By the 1920s municipal reforms, civil service reform, corrupt practise acts, presidential primaries to replace the power of politicians at national conventions had all helped to clean up politics.
In America the same political labels – Democratic and Republican – cover virtually all public officeholders, and therefor most voters are everywhere mobilized in the name of these two parties.

9.2 Responsibilities of Citizenship

Citizens of the US have a many rights that give them freedoms all peoples hold dear. However, the theory of democratic government holds that along with these rights come responsibilities – to obey the laws, to pay legally imposed taxes, to serve on juries when called to do so, to be informed about issues and candidtaes, and to exercise the right to vote. Another major responsibility is public service. Millions of Americans have joined the armed forces, Peace Corps, or other social service at home or abroad.